Is Language Learning A Condition Skill

Learning a linguistic communication is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and difficult work. If you're reading this, then you probably already know that.

What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you written report more effectively, and then that you make the most of your time and free energy. This handout starting time explains some of the central principles that guide effective linguistic communication learning, and then describes activities that can aid you put these principles into practice. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills grow.

Key principles of linguistic communication learning

The Basics:

Starting time, let's talk nigh the basics. Research in this area (called "second linguistic communication acquisition" in academia) suggests that there are iii primal elements to learning a new language.

• The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of maxim being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to understand it.
• Comprehensible output is the 2d element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language.
• The third chemical element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[i]

Fancy terms bated, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas.

These 3 elements are the edifice blocks of your language practice, and an effective study plan will maximize all 3. The more you listen and read (input), the more y'all speak and write (output), the more you lot go dorsum over what you've done and larn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills volition grow.

Do: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: agreement (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback).

Seek balance

Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If you focus exclusively on but i activeness, the others autumn behind.

This is actually a common pitfall for language learners. For instance, information technology'southward easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written linguistic communication is often readily attainable—for one thing, you have a whole textbook full of it. This is likewise truthful of the three key elements: it's comparatively easy to observe input sources (like your textbook) and practice understanding them. Just neglecting the other two primal principles (output and feedback/review) tin wearisome downwards language growth.

Instead, what y'all need is a balanced written report plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all 3 primal principles.

DO: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the iii key principles—input, output, and feedback/review.

Errors are important

Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fear of making a mistake, of proverb the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not being able to find the correct discussion, so on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will exist very public.

The thing is, yous Need to brand those mistakes. One of the cardinal principles of language learning is all about making errors and and so learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you're not willing to make errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a mistake negatively affects 2 of the three key principles of language learning!

So what practice you do? In part, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you should also look for ways to become depression-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes.

For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is oftentimes more comfy than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they're usually easier to find—yous've got a whole form full of potential partners!

DO: Acquire to capeesh mistakes, and push yourself to become more comfortable with making errors.

DO: Create opportunities for 'low-stakes' practice, where you'll experience comfortable practicing and making mistakes.

Spread it out

Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of textile, then you'll want to use your report time as effectively as possible. According to research in educational and cognitive psychology, one of the virtually effective learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has two primary components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[ii]

For example, let's imagine you lot accept a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a total of thirty minutes studying this vocab, which study plan will be the most effective?

(A) Study for xxx minutes on Thursday.
(B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wed, and Th.
(C) Report for 10 minutes at a fourth dimension on Lord's day, Tuesday, and Thursday.
(D) Study for xxx minutes on Sun.

If you look at the total fourth dimension spent studying, all iv options are exactly the same. But research suggests that option C is the near effective way to manage your fourth dimension: instead of studying the vocabulary all at one time, y'all've spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you've also increased the amount of fourth dimension betwixt report sessions. (And yes, this is also why "cramming" isn't a adept written report programme!)

Do: Break up your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over fourth dimension.

Bump up your memory

Retentiveness is a critical office of any kind of studying, and constructive memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you're not "expert at" memorizing things, don't despair! Although people ofttimes recall of retentiveness every bit a fixed quality, information technology's actually a skill that you tin better through deliberate exercise.

There'due south a considerable amount of research on how memory works, as well every bit a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments prove that our short-term retentiveness can only hold near 7 pieces of new data at once. So if you're working on a long list of new vocabulary words, first past breaking information technology upwardly into smaller chunks, and study one shorter department at a fourth dimension. Additionally, research as well suggests that recall-based report methods are most effective. This means that actively trying to call up data is more constructive than simply reviewing information; essentially, self-testing will aid yous more than re-reading your notes will.[4]

The all-time manner to beginning working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know piece of work for yous. For example, if associating a discussion with a movie is constructive for you, then you lot should incorporate images into your vocabulary practice. Nevertheless, if you're not certain where to showtime, here's a "beginner" formula for memorizing a new word: use the discussion at least five times the first day that you lot learn information technology, then multiple times over the week, at least one time every solar day.

If y'all're interested in more than tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies.

In add-on to figuring out which memorization techniques piece of work best for you, information technology's too important to actively protect your retentiveness. For example, experiencing a stiff emotion has been shown to sharply subtract the ability to memorize unrelated content. (And then if you've just watched a horror motion picture, it'due south probably not a great time for vocabulary review!)

To become the most out of your study time, hither'due south a list of common "memory killers" to avoid:

Stress and feet: Simply like other potent emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and recollect information.

Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great idea, but it's actually a really ineffective use of time. In fact, taking a short break every 30 minutes helps ameliorate focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics.

Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less constructive your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is particularly detrimental, and then those belatedly-night study sessions might actually exercise more than harm than skillful!

Multitasking: Equally you may take noticed, all of these "memory killers" are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of distraction. In fact, here's a great rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if yous're non supposed to do it while driving, then you lot shouldn't practice it while studying. (Yeah, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix "in the background" are all NOs.)

Practice: Increment memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks 1 at a time, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing.

Practise: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the retentivity techniques that work best for you into your study program.

Vocab is king

Desire to know a secret? Vocabulary is more important than grammer.
DISCLAIMER: This does Non mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammer, you won't know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells y'all how to combine words into sentences. And apparently, if you're in a foreign language class, you're going to need to study ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammar.
The more vocabulary you know, the more than rapidly you lot can grow your linguistic communication skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more than words means more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you're interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more beneficial to advice than grammar is. Being able to produce words will assist become your meaning across, even if what y'all say is non perfectly grammatical.[5]

Of course, in society to become fully fluent in your new language, eventually yous will need strong grammar skills. But once once more, this is something that having a strong, well-developed vocabulary will aid with. Since grammar dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will assistance improve your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work.

Exercise: Design a study programme that emphasizes vocabulary.

Activities

Now that nosotros've talked about the general principles that yous should contain in your language report, permit's focus on activities: practical suggestions to help you find new ways to abound your language skills!

Observe real-life sources

Since i of the principal 3 components of language learning is input, look for means to betrayal yourself to every bit much of the language you're learning as possible. Simply this doesn't mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that y'all're excited about). Instead, look for "accurate" examples of the language, things yous'll really savour and await forward to practicing with, even if you don't sympathize every word!

Here are some examples to go y'all started:

Newspaper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you've tried reading them a few times, it's easy to translate the primal parts to bank check your agreement. Look for a topic you're already interested in and follow it with a news reader app!

Books: Children's picture books and books y'all've read before in your native language are piece of cake options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library oftentimes has great options available for free!

TV shows and movies: Effort watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~fifteen minute segments. Another swell option is to watch showtime without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the linguistic communication you're learning, so finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Soap operas are also great options (specially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times.

Songs: Music, peculiarly popular songs, can exist especially well suited to language practice, since yous're likely to memorize the ones you relish. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you're struggling to notice good examples. Children'due south songs tin also exist fun practice tools.

Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and every bit a bonus you'll often get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many dissimilar languages.

Besides, consider tweaking some of your media settings to "bump up" your casual language exposure. For instance, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences will force you to interact with the language you're learning, even when you're (mostly) wasting time.

Pro tips

Improve the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions!

Slow it down: If you're listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing down the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-down sound still doesn't sound likewise strange. Also, make sure to take breaks frequently to assistance you process what you've just heard.

Combine your senses: In many cases, y'all can combine types of input to aid create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can aid you improve your comprehension. For instance, for TV shows and movies, plough on subtitles in the same language. Other options include:

• Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts available online, peculiarly for pieces that are a few days quondam.
• Amazon's Kindle offers an "immersive reading" option that syncs sound books with text.
• TED talks come in many dissimilar languages, and ofttimes include an interactive transcript.
• If y'all're an ESL student, the ESL $.25 website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and it as well has adjustable audio speeds!

Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, discover a source that you really enjoy, and commit to experiencing it only in the linguistic communication you're learning. Having a go-to plan that you lot love will help proceed you motivated. For case, if you lot honey podcast/radio story programs similar "Radiolab" and are learning Spanish, check out "Radio Ambulante."

Concur shadow conversations

A key part of learning a new language involves training your ear. Unlike written language, speech doesn't have the same context clues that assistance you decipher and separate out words. Plus, in improver to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to "smoosh" words together, which is fifty-fifty more confusing for linguistic communication learners![half dozen] In role, this is why listening to real-life sources tin be and then helpful (see the previous action).

However, even beginning language learners tin do good from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a chat word-for-discussion, even when you don't know what all of the words mean. This helps you get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well every bit learn to place private words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding exercise conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times.

Both of these strategies are corking ways to help you learn and retain new vocabulary, and they also increase your linguistic communication output in a depression-stakes practice setting!

Instance: If yous've got a homework do that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few extra steps to go the most benefit:

• After you've listened to the clip once, shadow the conversation in curt sections (think ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words as accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing.
• Once you can accurately shadow the entire clip, then focus on understanding the meaning of the material, and respond any homework questions related to the clip.
• Now, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: recollect of what you would want to say in a real-life situation like this 1, and practice it until you can respond confidently to any side of the exchange.

Become a collector

Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a big priority. This is particularly true when yous're in an immersion environment (studying abroad, etc), but information technology's also something that you lot can do on a regular basis fifty-fifty when you're at home.

Basically, yous demand to collect words: any time you encounter a new word, you want to capture it by recording it in some manner. The easiest way to do this is in a modest pocket notebook, but you could also put a note in your phone, send a text or email to yourself, or even record yourself saying information technology. The cardinal bespeak is to capture the give-and-take as quickly and easily as possible. Also, don't worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you lot'll deal with those later.

Any your recording system is (notebook, phone, vox memo, etc), it's but the first part of the drove process. Next, y'all'll need to review each of the words y'all've recorded. This is something you'll exercise on a regular footing, so that you tin really use the words yous've recorded. Depending on how many new words you lot're collecting, information technology might be every 24-hour interval, every few days, or one time a calendar week. This is the time when you notice the right spelling, write downwards the definition, maybe find an instance, and then on.

To make this process as effective equally possible, you likewise want to take some sort of organisation that helps you tape and organize your word drove. If you lot similar paper-based methods, so flashcards tin can be easily organized in index card boxes, though you might want to include some alphabetical divider tabs to assist yourself stay organized. Notwithstanding, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of data, and there are tons of apps that can help you organize a large vocabulary collection. But you lot don't need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet too works great for nigh cases.

Finally, you likewise want to brand sure to use your word drove! Non only do yous need to learn new words once you add them, you'll also need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another identify where digital tools shine, since it's easy to access the unabridged collection at any time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any example, make sure that y'all incorporate review along with learning new words.

The 4 basic steps of discussion collection

1. Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, find them in your "authentic sources," etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much almost spelling and definitions.
2. Review your new words. Plant a routine so that y'all regularly "empty out" your recording tool and add together the new words to your collection.
3. Record and organize your drove. Create an organized system for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional alphabetize cards.
4. Use your words! Brand sure yous're learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words.

Pro tips

• If you're struggling to detect new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words yous could collect—then attempt working "backwards." Instead of looking for new words in the language you're learning, think most the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, recollect almost the topics you frequently talk over in your native language. Practise you know how to talk about those things in the language you're learning? Hobbies and other classes are often swell places to start.
• If you're in a foreign linguistic communication class, you can utilize the same word collection arrangement to assist you lot learn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you desire to give those words actress attention. If you're using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating unlike card "sets" to help yous organize them.

Flashcard zen

Flashcards are ane of the virtually common tools that language learners apply. There is a good reason for this: they're easily portable, they're fantabulous for learning brusque pieces of data (like new words), and used correctly they're a great recall-based study strategy. However, flashcards are not without bug. For example, it's far too easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and and so spend comparatively little time actually using them! The post-obit tips describe means to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner.

Less is more

The more time you spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…but if you lot don't make flashcards, then y'all don't take any to utilise. The signal behind this paradox is that you want to minimize the time and effort you put into the flashcard set-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can actually harm you lot: if y'all focus on making absolutely "perfect" flashcards, then you're really just wasting time.

Similarly, you as well want to minimize the volume of information you lot put on each flashcard. Flashcards should non be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have simply enough information on information technology to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a good flashcard volition serve every bit a "cue" that triggers your memory. This way, y'all're forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain potent memories.

Mix information technology up

Some other common flashcard consequence is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. But in existent life, you'll exist using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Merely practicing vocabulary in rote drills may cease upwards slowing you downward when you need to actually use the words.[7]

I example of this is the "translation" miracle: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native linguistic communication. If y'all're ever translating word-for-word in your head, and so it takes much longer to understand and interact. A peachy way to reduce this issue is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, you could even use audio files.

Example: Imagine a offset educatee (and native English language speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is "bab" (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this discussion:

• Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other
• Sound flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic give-and-take on one side, and the spoken word in English on the other
• Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other

You lot can also combine these types to make different hybrid-fashion flashcards. One time again, don't effort to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—simply something that will push you to acquaintance words with meanings, instead of simply their translations. Non all of your flashcards have to utilize non-written cues, but it'south a smashing way to add variety and prevent "translation" memory.

Additionally, make sure to practise using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if yous've already gone through a set up of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the side by side time you employ it, and so that you're getting prompted by the language you're learning.

You tin also avert the pitfalls of rote memorization by making sure to practice using the words in context. For case, in addition to testing yourself with each menu, follow that up by using the word in a sentence. This is peculiarly good for words you've already learned and are at present reviewing. Y'all can as well plough this into a game, where yous make up "mad-lib" fashion sentences by randomly cartoon cards and combining them. If you're working with a partner or written report grouping, you tin likewise use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary.

Brand it a habit

Ultimately, flashcards are but a tool, albeit i that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of exercise, the more time you lot put in, meliorate your results will be: flashcards work best when used frequently and consistently. If yous want to get the most out of your flashcards, plow using them into a regular addiction. Here are some tips to keep in heed:

Small sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and exercise each set several times before moving on to the side by side ane. Also, make sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and in one case you've reviewed a set of words, put it aside for a day or ii before reviewing it again.

Increase portability: Brand sure you lot accept full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If y'all're using paper, and then consider using a binder ring and pigsty punch to go on small sets together. You might as well utilise smaller cards: since y'all'll exist making simple cards (minimalism!), yous could probably cut a regular 3"x5" alphabetize card into halves (or even quarters) and however have more than enough room! Fifty-fifty if you use full-sized paper cards, you increase portability by being selective in the number you take with you. Recall, you lot want to infinite out your sets and reps, so it isn't necessary to acquit all your cards with you all the time. If you're using digital tools, expect for apps that tin can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc.

Wasted' time: Since flashcards are and then portable, they're a great way to turn "wasted" time into useful time. How much time do you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an engagement at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open upwardly your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and practise a quick vocab review. If you're doing modest sets it won't accept very long to go through one, and you've just bumped up your number of reps for the day!

Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once yous've established a behavior pattern, yous notice yourself doing it without thinking virtually it. Then think near how you tin create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using "wasted" time is a good start, especially if you accept a daily double-decker commute. What about taking 5 minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you drink your coffee? Or making information technology your commencement "later-dinner to practice" once you've finished eating? One time you detect ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you can use the ability of habit to help abound your vocabulary.

Periodic review: Once you've learned new words, yous're not done with those flashcards—instead, use them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might exercise a review prepare in one case each mean solar day, or the review words tin exist mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a corking way to proceed your word drove going stiff!).

Make it fun

Learning a new language is a lot of piece of work, just that's non what motivated y'all to start studying information technology in the first place, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe fifty-fifty study literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this linguistic communication in the first place, it'southward probably a lot more fun than all this studying is.

Here's the thing: whenever you can do something that connects you lot back with the reasons that motivate you to study your new language, or you observe something new and exciting virtually the linguistic communication yous're studying or the cultures that utilise it, apply your excitement to boost your motivation. It'southward what will keep you going—and that kind of persistence is a fundamental factor in language learning success.[viii]

But in addition to staying focused on what you enjoy, y'all can also deliberately create fun social activities that also help yous abound your linguistic communication skills. For example, try hosting a dinner and movie "theme" night with friends who are studying the aforementioned language. Create a "mini-immersion" surroundings: sentry movies in the language you're learning, melt some accurate cuisine, and endeavor to speak only in your new (shared!) linguistic communication. It's a smashing style to get some authentic, low-stakes practise. (Plus, information technology's a great alibi for a party!)

Parting advice

In addition to this handout, in that location are lots of resources to assist y'all with your language learning goals.

• If you're in a language course, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors ofttimes have great advice for study strategies—in addition to their instruction experience, at one point they were learning a new language, just like you are!
• Check out what the linguistic communication department offers: peradventure there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka "language coffee hours"), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often have online resources equally well, so exist sure to check out their websites.
• Expect for other campus organizations that offer language learning resource, such as global studies and student groups.

UNC language departments, programs, and curricula

• Department of Asian Studies
• Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies
• Department of Romance Studies
• Department of High german and Slavic Languages and Literatures
• Programme in American Indian and Indigenous Studies
• Curriculum in Global studies

Works consulted

Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and cocky-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language house.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, East. J., Nathan, Chiliad. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with constructive learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, xiv(ane), 4-58.

Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, S. T. (1995). Readings on second linguistic communication conquering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

O'Malley, J. G., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in second linguistic communication acquisition. Readings on second language acquisition, 138-160.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Enquiry on linguistic communication learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional bug. The Mod Language Periodical,73(iv), 404-419.

Nunan, David. 2nd Language Pedagogy & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999.

Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379-399.

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[1] Chocolate-brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999

[2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012

[3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Periodical,73(4), 404-419.

[4] Dunlosky et al, 2013

[5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and cocky-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse.

[six] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998

[vii] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989

[8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995.

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Source: https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/

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